This is a working overview of Intranasal route, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2025-10-17 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Quantification in biological matrices relies on liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry with stable-isotope internal standards. Low plasma concentrations and adsorption to container surfaces both complicate measurement. Solid-phase extraction is often needed to reduce matrix interference before injection. Reported limits of quantification differ widely between laboratories, which makes direct comparison of pharmacokinetic results difficult and limits meta-analysis.
Peptide bonds are vulnerable to protease attack, and Selank is no exception. Measured half-life in serum is short, on the order of minutes in several reports, which explains why intranasal administration is the common route described in the literature. Absorption across the nasal mucosa partially bypasses first-pass hepatic metabolism. Quantitative data on human bioavailability remain limited and are difficult to compare across studies.
Animal studies have examined behaviour in tests of anxiety, memory retention and stress response, and several report changes in neurotrophic or neurotransmitter-related markers. The human evidence base is much smaller, consisting mainly of short trials conducted in Russia with limited reporting in English-language journals. Sample sizes are modest and outcome measures vary between studies, so the findings are best described as preliminary. Independent replication under modern trial standards has not been widely reported.
Outside its country of origin the compound is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. No regulatory approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency has been granted for human use. Identity and purity are normally checked by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, with mass spectrometry used to confirm the molecular mass. Lyophilised material is stored cold and desiccated, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Dry storage temperature | -20 C or below | Sealed, desiccated, protected from light |
| Solution stability | Hours to days at 2-8 C | Depends on buffer and microbial load |
| Preferred pH range | Near neutral to slightly acidic | Alkaline pH accelerates hydrolysis |
| Main degradation routes | Hydrolysis and deamidation | No cysteine or methionine in sequence |
| Identity confirmation | Electrospray mass spectrometry | Observed mass compared with 751.9 Da |
Proposed mechanisms center on modulation of the GABA system, but no single molecular target has been confirmed. Rodent studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and in the turnover of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in several brain regions. Increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor have also been described after repeated administration. These findings come largely from animal models, and the degree to which they describe human neurochemistry remains an open question. The mechanism is best characterized as multi-system and not fully resolved.
Pharmacokinetic data are limited. Like most short peptides, Selank is vulnerable to plasma and tissue peptidases, and its measured half-life in circulation is short, on a minutes scale. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail slows this degradation but does not eliminate it. Intranasal administration is the route described in most reports, with absorption through the nasal mucosa and a hypothesized path into the central nervous system that avoids the blood-brain barrier. Direct measurements of human brain exposure are unavailable, so distribution claims rest on inference from animal work.
Clinical evidence comes mainly from small studies conducted in Russia, several of which were open-label or lacked robust blinding. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, changes in attention measures, and effects on asthenic states following illness. Sample sizes are typically in the tens of participants, and independent replication outside the region is scarce. Reviews published in English generally note the limited methodological quality of the underlying trials. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful effects under rigorous conditions remains unresolved.
Selank is studied chiefly as an animal-model anxiolytic with proposed secondary effects on memory and immune signaling. Reported mechanisms include modulation of the GABA-A receptor complex, inhibition of enkephalin-degrading enzymes, and shifts in monoamine turnover within limbic structures. Some experiments describe increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the hippocampus after repeated dosing. No single molecular target has been confirmed, and the peptide does not bind any receptor with the selectivity typical of a conventional small-molecule drug. Mechanism therefore remains a set of hypotheses rather than an established pathway.
Laboratory work relies on standard behavioral paradigms. Rodents are tested in the elevated plus maze, open field, and passive avoidance tasks, with outcomes compared against diazepam or vehicle controls. Intranasal dosing is used most often because it bypasses first-pass metabolism, though intraperitoneal and intravenous routes also appear in published protocols. Biochemical endpoints include tissue BDNF concentrations, cytokine levels, and monoamine metabolites. Human data are limited to small Russian trials reporting reduced anxiety scores; most were not prospectively registered, and few employed independent outcome assessment.
Measuring peptide exposure inside the brain is technically difficult. Selank is degraded rapidly in plasma, and assays must separate intact peptide from fragments, which favors targeted mass spectrometry over immunoassays alone. Reported half-lives are short, on the order of minutes, so effects observed hours later are attributed to downstream signaling rather than to the parent compound. Blood-brain barrier permeability is debated and rarely quantified directly. Gaps include absent dose-response characterization, inconsistent reporting of purity, and almost no pharmacokinetic data from human participants.
The use of acupuncture in Germany increased by 20% in 2007, after the German acupuncture trials supported its efficacy for certain uses. In 2011, there were more than one million users, and insurance companies have estimated that two-thirds of German users are women. As a result of the trials, German public health insurers began to cover acupuncture for chronic low back pain and osteoarthritis of the knee, but not tension headache or migraine. This decision was based in part on socio-political reasons. Some insurers in Germany chose to stop reimbursement of acupuncture because of the trials. For other conditions, insurers in Germany were not convinced that acupuncture had adequate benefits over usual care or sham treatments. Highlighting the results of the placebo group, researchers refused to accept a placebo therapy as efficient. According to Singh and Ernst "the WHO acupuncture panel did not include a single critic of acupuncture. It was quite simply a group of believers who unsurprisingly were less than objective in their assessment."
=== Glass Pasteur pipette === The two types of glass that are usually found in the laboratory and in the Pasteur pipette are borosilicate glass and soda–lime glass. Borosilicate glass is a widely used glass for laboratory apparatus, as it can withstand chemicals and temperatures used in most laboratories. Borosilicate glass is also more economical since the glass can be fabricated easily compared to other types. Soda lime glass, although not as chemically resistant as borosilicate glass, is suitable as a material for inexpensive apparatus such as the Pasteur pipette. Traditionally, glass Pasteur pipettes were made by heating lengths of glass tubing over a flame, before drawing them apart to form a long capillary. This capillary was further heated to bisect, producing two pipettes. Before the advent of rubber bulbs (also called teats) to generate a vacuum, liquid was drawn up through mouth suction. Nowadays, mouth-pipetting is either strongly discouraged or forbidden. Glass Pasteur pipettes can also be used for microscale filtration. By plugging the top (the larger aperture) with cotton or glass wool, a solution may pass through the pipette while insoluble sediment is retained. A rubber bulb may be employed to provide additional pressure if gravity is insufficient. Glass pasteur pipettes can be used to make spotters for thin layer chromatography after pulling it over a flame.
=== Biological characteristics === Its rapid growth and its ability to reproduce from buried rhizomes and tubers facilitates the Jerusalem artichoke's uncontrolled spread. The vegetative propagules can be transported via rivers and water streams and begin a new population on riverbanks. Dispersal by animal is also possible, as animals feed on tubers and rhizomes and excrete the propagules in new areas. With humans' cultivation, there is also a risk of the plant's unintended escape into the wild. It can also be propagated by seed. Its relatively long flower period enables the Jerusalem artichoke to increase its reproductive potential.
=== Condensation from plasma === Nanoparticles of pure metals, oxides, carbides, and nitrides, can be created by vaporizing a solid precursor with a thermal plasma and then condensing the vapor by expansion or quenching in a suitable gas or liquid. The plasma can be produced by dc jet, electric arc, or radio frequency (RF) induction. The thermal plasma can reach temperatures of 10.000 K and can thus also synthesize nanopowders with very high boiling points. Metal wires can be vaporized by the exploding wire method. In RF induction plasma torches, energy coupling to the plasma is accomplished through the electromagnetic field generated by the induction coil. The plasma gas does not come in contact with electrodes, thus eliminating possible sources of contamination and allowing the operation of such plasma torches with a wide range of gases including inert, reducing, oxidizing, and other corrosive atmospheres. The working frequency is typically between 200 kHz and 40 MHz. Laboratory units run at power levels in the order of 30–50 kW, whereas the large-scale industrial units have been tested at power levels up to 1 MW. As the residence time of the injected feed droplets in the plasma is very short, it is important that the droplet sizes are small enough in order to obtain complete evaporation.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Career == Somogyi was born on March 7, 1883, in the village of Zsámánd in Hungary (today Reinersdorf, part of Heiligenbrunn, Austria). He graduated in chemical engineering from the University of Budapest in 1905. After an additional year as an assistant in biochemistry, Somogyi went to the United States, where he eventually found a position as an assistant in biochemistry at Cornell University (1906–1908). He returned to Budapest where he worked at the Municipal Laboratory for the next decade. In 1914, he received his Ph.D. from the University of Budapest, submitting a dissertation on catalytic hydrogenation. During World War I he was in charge of providing food to the destitute. Somogyi was invited to return to the United States by Philip A. Shaffer, whom he had known at Cornell. In 1922 Somogyi became an instructor in biochemistry at Washington University School of Medicine. There Somogyi worked with Shaffer and Edward Adelbert Doisy on insulin preparation and insulin's use in the treatment of diabetes. In 1926, Somogyi became the first biochemist on the staff of the new Jewish Hospital of St. Louis where he worked closely with physicians. He directed the hospital's clinical laboratory until he retired in 1957.
During the Tet Offensive, which swept across South Vietnam in January/February 1968, the 3rd Brigade was en route to Chu Lai within 24 hours of receiving its orders. The 3rd Brigade performed combat duties in the Huế – Phu Bai area of the I Corps sector. Later the brigade moved south to Saigon, and fought in the Mekong Delta, the Iron Triangle and along the Cambodian border, serving nearly 22 months. While the 3rd Brigade was deployed, the division created a provisional 4th Brigade, consisting of 4th Battalion, 325th Infantry; 3d Battalion, 504th Infantry; and 3d Battalion, 505th Infantry. An additional unit, the 3d Battalion, 320th Artillery, was activated under Division Artillery to support the 4th Brigade. The units assigned and attached to the 3d Brigade of the 82nd Airborne Division were as follows:
The Government of India refused the offer from Union Carbide, and claimed US$3.3 billion. The Indian Supreme Court told both sides to come to an agreement and "start with a clean slate" in November 1988. Eventually, in an out-of-court settlement reached in February 1989, Union Carbide agreed to pay US$470 million for damages caused in the Bhopal disaster. The amount was immediately paid. Throughout 1990, the Indian Supreme Court heard appeals against the settlement. In October 1991, the Court upheld the original $470 million, dismissing any other outstanding petitions that challenged the original decision. It ordered the Indian government "to purchase, out of settlement fund, a group medical insurance policy to cover 100,000 persons who may later develop symptoms" and cover any shortfall in the settlement fund. It also requested UCC and its subsidiary UCIL "voluntarily" fund a hospital in Bhopal, at an estimated $17 million, to specifically treat victims of the Bhopal disaster. The company agreed to this.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
UIUC Histology Subject 777 Illustration at wku.edu Anatomy photo: Musculoskeletal/muscle/skeletal1/skeletal3 - Comparative Organology at University of California, Davis MedEd at Loyola histo/practical/muscle/hp7-42.html
=== Synthesis === A number of methods of synthesis have also been reported. One method begins with alkylation of 1-(2-pyrimidyl)piperazine (1) with 3-chloro-1-cyanopropane (4-chlorobutyronitrile) (2) to give (3). Next, reduction of the nitrile group is performed either by catalytic hydrogenation or with lithium aluminium hydride (LAH) giving (4). The primary amine is then reacted with 3,3-tetramethyleneglutaric anhydride (5) in order to yield buspirone (6).
== Discography == Studio albums (A Lament for...) The Addicts (2007) Leaving Paris (2010) Hope /// Dope /// Rope (2012) This Is Not Supposed To Be Positive (2015) Banlieue Triste (2018) A Loner (2022) Saddiction (2025) EPs Bus de Nuit (2019) Split albums Hangman's Chair / Eibon (2007) Hangman's Chair / Drawers (2012) Hangman's Chair / Acid Deathtrip (2014) Hangman's Chair / Greenmachine (2017)
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Dry powder is best kept sealed, protected from light, and held at minus 20 degrees Celsius or below. Desiccant packaging helps limit moisture uptake because the material is hygroscopic. A sealed vial should be allowed to equilibrate to room temperature before opening to reduce condensation.
Hydrolysis of peptide bonds and deamidation of arginine and proline residues are the main degradation routes. Alkaline pH and higher temperatures accelerate both processes. Buffered, near-neutral solutions stored cold generally degrade more slowly than unbuffered ones.
Reverse-phase chromatography gives the clearest single view of related impurities and truncated sequences. Mass spectrometry then confirms that the main peak carries the expected mass. Neither test detects enantiomeric impurities, which require a separate chiral assay.
Most published work uses intranasal application, either as drops or as a nasal spray. Injection routes appear in a smaller set of animal experiments. Oral use is uncommon in the literature because peptide breakdown and poor absorption limit this route.